Cultural Democracy

Cultural democracy – Summary This is the summary of the conference or debate between the two speakers Mr. Jerry Sambuaga and Mr. Lee Nathanael Santoso, discussing the topic of Cultural Democracy. The first topic that is discussed was on the ideal form of democracy. Mr. Jerry said that the ideal form of democracy is the one that prioritize freedom, to have liberalism implemented, which will eventually lead to individualism. In his opinion liberalism should be implemented in all aspects, such as in politics and economy.The examples of liberalism in politics are presidential election or parties, whereas the example of liberalism in economy is human rights. The freedom of speech, freedom to express opinions, since 1998, is the key to liberalism (direct democracy). On the other hand, when discussing the topic on the ideal form of democracy, Mr. Nathanael raises up the question â€Å"Whether democracy is universal or locally? † as his comeback. People now have human rights, t he right to choose what they think democracy is. He said that in Singapore the government plays a larger role compared than the role of freedom of speech (representative democracy).Mr. jerry said that democracy is invented in the west, and the democracy in Indonesia is still very fragile, there are aspects that have not yet been touched such as civil society, law enforcement, etc. There is a statement that Mr. Jerry gave that Mr. Nathanael also agrees on, and that is â€Å"Democracy is not a destination but a goal†. Mr. Nathanael added that democracy indeed is a mean or a goal, and the goal is not democracy but to make sure that every people have basic necessities (security, etc). Mr.Nathanael asked a rhetorical question, † which political system that can guarantee their country to be flexible enough to attain political grid lock? † From his point of view, Singapore is the closest one that has been able to achieve this. The second topic that the moderator discusse d was, â€Å"Should a country this big (Indonesia) use a federal system or a unitary system? † Mr. Nathanael said that our country should adopt a mix of the two systems. From Mr. jerry's point of view, Indonesia should use a federal system, because Indonesia is very diverse, if we force something it can cause damages. Mr. Nathanael debated Mr.Jerry's statement by saying that Singapore also has diversity, but they know how to harmonized the different point of views, opinions, etc. He said, â€Å"Minorities and other ethnicity receive the right to take part, to give a voice. † Mr. Jerry debated Mr. Nathanael’s statement by saying that Singapore has an oppressive or an authoritarian system, instead of having a freedom of speech. â€Å"Singapore has a good system but can it last with that system? Indonesia may not yet be successful now, but with the existence of liberty, and opportunity given for people to be able to govern, may lead Indonesia to become a developed country. Mr. Nathanael debated Mr. Jerry’s statement saying, â€Å"The authoritarian system in Singapore is different compared to China, in Singapore the law is clear, you can have a say on criticizing the government, but you must have facts to support it. Mr. Jerry’s opinion is that our country is best suited with having a little number parties, because a large number of parties slows down decision making, and does nut suit the presidential system. While Mr. Nathanael said that democracy is not about political parties, part of government,  it is about achieving national interests.He said that, â€Å"only the parties with money that can win (in indo), but in Singapore if you have a good vision you will be heard†. â€Å"Should democracy control freedom? † Mr. Jerry said that one’s freedom of expression could violate another's freedom of expression. Freedom should be controlled but not limited. Democracy may not be the best system, but it is stil l better to educate the people to participate. He added, â€Å"Freedom of rights of Singapore must be developed. † Mr. Nathanael commented, â€Å"Singapore are convinced that this is the system for them, the issue is Singapore’s system should be more relevant. Singapore’s human rights can’t be compared with Indonesia’s priority of economic prosperity. Cultural Democracy Critical Analysis Cultural Democracy is the term for a philosophy or policy emphasizing pluralism, participation, and equity within and between cultures. Which consists of a set of related commitments such as, protecting and promoting cultural diversity, and the right to culture for everyone in our society and around the world;? encouraging active participation in community cultural life;? enabling people to participate in policy decisions that affect the quality of our cultural lives; and ? ssuring fair and equitable access to cultural resources and support. There are three basic types of democracy: Direct democracy is a political system where the citizens participate in the decision-making personally, Representative democracy involves the selection of government officials by the people being represented, and Parliamentary democracy is a representative democracy where government is appointed by representatives as opposed to a ‘presidential rule' wherein the President is both head of state and the head of government and is elected by the voters.In my opinion, I think the ideal form of democracy should be the one where liberalism is highly considered, but where there is also a balance in government involvement. Because, as the people, we know what our country needs most, but with the diversity that our country possess, and with the different opinions that people have, there should be a representative democracy that can represent the people and chooses the best decisions for the people and the country. Should democracy control freedom?I think that freedom is both a positive and a negative think, if not controlled properly. People have different opinions, and if all of them have the freedom of speech, then there will be a moment where their freedom of expression will clash with others’ freedom of expression. That is why that freedom should also be controlled to a point of degree where people would still have the freedom of speech. The main reason why Indonesia has not been able to reach its full potential is because we have weak institutions, hence weak democracy.Indonesia should learn the complexity that is democracy, the many aspects that is consists of such as  legal certainty, transparency, freedom, etc. The one thing that Indonesia should be able to do to improve as a country is by knowing how to prioritize. Of course, in democracy alone there are many aspects that it consists of, and to manage this by knowing which to prioritize first, to the extent where all the aspects will be covered one by one. Indonesia should be consistent in following or running a liberal system.Of course, there are processes that need to be done; we need to fight for the freedom of the economy. The best solution is to have a modification based on the aspiration of the people. We should be able to learn, and adopt all the good elements that each country possesses, mix them up and implement them as our democratic system. By: Pamela Lemmuela (04320120057) FISIP/HI/2012 RESEARCH : ? Democracy? From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia A woman casts her vote in the second round of the French presidential election of 2007 Part of the Politics series|Democracy| History  Ã‚ · Outline| Basic forms| * Direct * Representative| Variants| * Anticipatory * Consensus * Deliberative * Demarchy * Economic * Electronic * Grassroots * Illiberal * Inclusive * Liberal * Non-partisan * Ochlocracy * Participatory * Radical * Religious * Representative direct * Sociocracy * Soviet * Totalitarian * Other| Politics portal| * v t e| Part of the Polit ics series| Basic forms ofgovernment| Power structure| * Confederal * Federal * Hegemony * Imperial * Unitary| Power source| Democracy * Direct * Representative * Other * Monarchy * Absolute * Constitutional * Oligarchy * Aristocracy * Meritocracy * Military junta * Plutocracy * Stratocracy * Technocracy * Timocracy * Other * Anarchy * Authoritarianism * Autocracy * Anocracy * Despotism * Dictatorship * Kritarchy * Republic * Theocracy * Totalitarianism| List of forms of government| Politics portal| * v t e|Democracy is a form of government in which all eligible citizens have an equal say in the decisions that affect their lives. Democracy allows people to participate equally—either directly or through elected representatives—in the proposal, development, and creation of laws. It encompasses social, economic and cultural conditions that enable the free and equal practice of political self-determination. The term originates from the Greek (demokratia) â€Å"rule of th e people†,[1] which was coined from demos) â€Å"people† and (kratos) â€Å"power† in the 5th century BCE to denote the political systems then existing in Greek city-states, notably Athens; the term is an antonym to â€Å"rule of an elite†. The English word dates to the 16th century, from the older Middle French and Middle Latin equivalents. A democratic government contrasts to forms of government where power is either held by one, as in a monarchy, or where power is held by a small number of individuals, as in an oligarchy or aristocracy.Nevertheless, these oppositions, inherited from Greek philosophy, are now ambiguous because contemporary governments have mixed democratic, oligarchic, and monarchic elements. Karl Popper defined democracy in contrast to dictatorship or tyranny, thus focusing on opportunities for the people to control their leaders and to oust them without the need for a revolution. [2] Several variants of democracy exist, but there ar e two basic forms, both of which concern how the whole body of citizens executes its will. One form of emocracy is direct democracy, in which citizens have direct and active participation in the decision making of the government. In most modern democracies, the whole body of citizens remain the sovereign power but political power is exercised indirectly through elected representatives; this is called representative democracy. The concept of representative democracy arose largely from ideas and institutions that developed during the European Middle Ages, the Age of Enlightenment, and the American and French Revolutions. [3] Contents   [hide]   * 1 Definition * 2 History * 2. Ancient origins * 2. 2 Middle Ages * 2. 3 Modern era * 3 Countries * 4 Types * 4. 1 Basic forms * 4. 2 Variants * 4. 3 Non-governmental * 5 Theory * 5. 1 Aristotle * 5. 2 Rationale * 5. 3 Ideal forms * 5. 4 Practice * 5. 5 Criticism * 6 Development * 7 See also * 8 References * 9 External links| [edit] Defini tion While there is no universally accepted definition of â€Å"democracy,†[4] equality and freedom have both been identified as important characteristics of democracy since ancient times. 5] These principles are reflected in all citizens being equal before the law and having equal access to legislative processes. For example, in a representative democracy, every vote has equal weight, no unreasonable restrictions can apply to anyone seeking to become a representative, and the freedom of its citizens is secured by legitimized rights and liberties which are generally protected by a constitution. [6][7] One theory holds that democracy requires three fundamental principles: 1) upward control, i. e. overeignty residing at the lowest levels of authority, 2) political equality, and 3) social norms by which individuals and institutions only consider acceptable acts that reflect the first two principles of upward control and political equality. [8] The term â€Å"democracy† is sometimes used as shorthand for liberal democracy, which is a variant of representative democracy that may include elements such as political pluralism; equality before the law; the right to petition elected officials for redress of grievances; due process; civil liberties; human rights; and lements of civil society outside the government. [citation needed] In the United States, separation of powers is often cited as a central attribute, but in other countries, such as the United Kingdom, the dominant principle is that of parliamentary sovereignty (while maintaining judicial independence). [citation needed] In other cases, â€Å"democracy† is used to mean direct democracy. Though the term â€Å"democracy† is typically used in the context of a political state, the principles also are applicable to private organizations. Majority rule is often listed as a characteristic of democracy. by whom? ] Hence, democracy allows for political minorities to be oppressed by the â₠¬Å"tyranny of the majority† in the absence of legal protections of individual or group rights. An essential part of an â€Å"ideal† representative democracy is competitive elections that are fair both substantively[9] and procedurally. [10] Furthermore, freedom of political expression, freedom of speech, and freedom of the press are considered to be essential rights that allow citizens to be adequately informed and able to vote according to their own interests. 11][12] It has also been suggested that a basic feature of democracy is the capacity of individuals to participate freely and fully in the life of their society. [13] With its emphasis on notions of social contract and the collective will of the people, democracy can also be characterized as a form of political collectivism because it is defined as a form of government in which all eligible citizens have an equal say in the decisions that affect their lives. [14] While democracy is often equated with the republic an form of government, the term â€Å"republic† classically has encompassed both democracies and aristocracies. 15][16] [edit] History Main article: History of democracy [edit] Ancient origins See also: Athenian democracy Cleisthenes, â€Å"father of Athenian democracy†, modern bust. The term â€Å"democracy† first appeared in ancient Greek political and philosophical thought in the city-state of Athens. [17][18] Led by Cleisthenes, Athenians established what is generally held as the first democracy in 508-507 BCE. Cleisthenes is referred to as â€Å"the father of Athenian democracy. [19] Athenian democracy took the form of a direct democracy, and it had two distinguishing features: the random selection of ordinary citizens to fill the few existing government administrative and judicial offices,[20] and a legislative assembly consisting of all Athenian citizens. [21] All citizens were eligible to speak and vote in the assembly, which set the laws of the city st ate. However, Athenian citizenship excluded women, slaves, foreigners ( metoikoi), and males under 20 years old. [citation needed] Of the estimated 200,000 to 400,000 inhabitants of Athens, there were between 30,000 and 60,000 citizens. citation needed] The exclusion of large parts of the population from the citizen body is closely related to the ancient understanding of citizenship. In most of antiquity the benefit of citizenship was tied to the obligation to fight war campaigns. [citation needed] Athenian democracy was not only direct in the sense that decisions were made by the assembled people, but also directest in the sense that the people through the assembly, boule and courts of law controlled the entire political process and a large proportion of citizens were involved constantly in the public business. 22] Even though the rights of the individual were not secured by the Athenian constitution in the modern sense (the ancient Greeks had no word for â€Å"rights†[23]), the Athenians enjoyed their liberties not in opposition to the government but by living in a city that was not subject to another power and by not being subjects themselves to the rule of another person. [24] Even though the Roman Republic contributed significantly to certain aspects of democracy, only a minority of Romans were citizens with votes in elections for representatives.The votes of the powerful were given more weight through a system of gerrymandering, so most high officials, including members of the Senate, came from a few wealthy and noble families. [25] However, many notable exceptions did occur. [citation needed] [edit] Middle Ages During the Middle Ages, there were various systems involving elections or assemblies, although often only involving a small amount of the population, the election of Gopala in Bengal region of Indian Subcontinent (within a aste system), the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (10% of population), the Althing in Iceland, the Logting in the Faero e Islands, certain medieval Italian city-states such as Venice, the tuatha system in early medieval Ireland, the Veche in Novgorod and Pskov Republics of medieval Russia, Scandinavian Things, The States in Tirol and Switzerland and the autonomous merchant city of Sakai in the 16th century in Japan. However, participation was often restricted to a minority, and so may be better classified as oligarchy.Most regions in medieval Europe were ruled by clergy or feudal lords. The Kouroukan Fouga divided the Mali Empire into ruling clans (lineages) that were represented at a great assembly called the Gbara. However, the charter made Mali more similar to a constitutional monarchy than a democratic republic. A little closer to modern democracy were the Cossack republics of Ukraine in the 16th–17th centuries: Cossack Hetmanate and Zaporizhian Sich. The highest post – the Hetman – was elected by the representatives from the country's districts.Magna Carta, 1215, England The Parliament of England had its roots in the restrictions on the power of kings written into Magna Carta, which explicitly protected certain rights of the King's subjects, whether free or fettered – and implicitly supported what became English writ of habeas corpus, safeguarding individual freedom against unlawful imprisonment with right to appeal. The first elected parliament was De Montfort's Parliament in England in 1265.However only a small minority actually had a voice; Parliament was elected by only a few percent of the population, (less than 3% as late as 1780[26]), and the power to call parliament was at the pleasure of the monarch (usually when he or she needed funds). The power of Parliament increased in stages over the succeeding centuries. After the Glorious Revolution of 1688, the English Bill of Rights of 1689 was enacted, which codified certain rights and increased the influence of Parliament. 26] The franchise was slowly increased and Parliament gradually gaine d more power until the monarch became largely a figurehead. [27] As the franchise was increased, it also was made more uniform, as many so-called rotten boroughs, with a handful of voters electing a Member of Parliament, were eliminated in the Reform Act of 1832. In North America, the English Puritans who migrated from 1620 established colonies in New England whose governance was democratic and which contributed to the democratic development of the United States. 28] [edit] Modern era [edit] 18th and 19th centuries The first nation in modern history to adopt a democratic constitution was the short-lived Corsican Republic in 1755. This Corsican Constitution was the first based on Enlightenment principles and even allowed for female suffrage, something that was granted in other democracies only by the 20th century. In 1789, Revolutionary France adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and, although short-lived, the National Convention was elected by all males in 1792. [29]The establishment of universal male suffrage in France in 1848 was an important milestone in the history of democracy. Universal male suffrage was definitely established in France in March 1848 in the wake of the French Revolution of 1848. [30] In 1848, several revolutions broke out in Europe as rulers were confronted with popular demands for liberal constitutions and more democratic government. [31] Although not described as a democracy by the founding fathers, the United States founders also shared a determination to root the American experiment in the principle of natural freedom and equality. 32] The United States Constitution, adopted in 1788, provided for an elected government and protected civil rights and liberties for some. In the colonial period before 1776, and for some time after, often only adult white male property owners could vote; enslaved Africans, most free black people and most women were not extended the franchise. On the American frontier, democracy became a way of life, with widespread social, economic and political equality. 33] However, slavery was a social and economic institution, particularly in eleven states in the American South, such that a variety of organizations were established advocating the movement of black people from the United States to locations where they would enjoy greater freedom and equality. In the 1860 United States Census the slave population in the United States had grown to four million,[34] and in Reconstruction after the Civil War (late 1860s) the newly freed slaves became citizens with (in the case of men) a nominal right to vote.Full enfranchisement of citizens was not secured until after the African-American Civil Rights Movement (1955–1968) gained passage by the United States Congress of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. [35][36] [edit] 20th and 21st centuries The number of nations 1800–2003 scoring 8 or higher on Polity IV scale, another widely used measure of democracy. 20th cent ury transitions to liberal democracy have come in successive â€Å"waves of democracy,† variously resulting from wars, revolutions, decolonization, religious and economic circumstances.World War I and the dissolution of the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires resulted in the creation of new nation-states from Europe, most of them at least nominally democratic. In the 1920s democracy flourished, but the Great Depression brought disenchantment, and most of the countries of Europe, Latin America, and Asia turned to strong-man rule or dictatorships. Fascism and dictatorships flourished in Nazi Germany, Italy, Spain and Portugal, as well as nondemocratic regimes in the Baltics, the Balkans, Brazil, Cuba, China, and Japan, among others. 37] World War II brought a definitive reversal of this trend in western Europe. The democratization of the American, British, and French sectors of occupied Germany (disputed[38]), Austria, Italy, and the occupied Japan served as a model for the la ter theory of regime change. However, most of Eastern Europe, including the Soviet sector of Germany fell into the non-democratic Soviet bloc. The war was followed by decolonization, and again most of the new independent states had nominally democratic constitutions. India emerged as the world's largest democracy and continues to be so. 39] By 1960, the vast majority of country-states were nominally democracies, although most of the world's populations lived in nations that experienced sham elections, and other forms of subterfuge (particularly in Communist nations and the former colonies. ) A subsequent wave of democratization brought substantial gains toward true liberal democracy for many nations. Spain, Portugal (1974), and several of the military dictatorships in South America returned to civilian rule in the late 1970s and early 1980s (Argentina in 1983, Bolivia, Uruguay in 1984, Brazil in 1985, and Chile in the early 1990s).This was followed by nations in East and South Asia by the mid-to-late 1980s. Economic malaise in the 1980s, along with resentment of Soviet oppression, contributed to the collapse of the Soviet Union, the associated end of the Cold War, and the democratization and liberalization of the former Eastern bloc countries. The most successful of the new democracies were those geographically and culturally closest to western Europe, and they are now members or candidate members of the European Union. Some researchers consider that contemporary Russia is not a true democracy and instead resembles a form of dictatorship. 40] The Economist's Democracy Index as published in December 2011, with greener colours representing more democratic countries and clearly authoritarian countries in dark red. The liberal trend spread to some nations in Africa in the 1990s, most prominently in South Africa. Some recent examples of attempts of liberalization include the Indonesian Revolution of 1998, the Bulldozer Revolution in Yugoslavia, the Rose Revolution in Georgia, the Orange Revolution in Ukraine, the Cedar Revolution in Lebanon, the Tulip Revolution in Kyrgyzstan, and the Jasmine Revolution in Tunisia.According to Freedom House, in 2007 there were 123 electoral democracies (up from 40 in 1972). [41] According to World Forum on Democracy, electoral democracies now represent 120 of the 192 existing countries and constitute 58. 2 percent of the world's population. At the same time liberal democracies i. e. countries Freedom House regards as free and respectful of basic human rights and the rule of law are 85 in number and represent 38 percent of the global population. [42] In 2010 the United Nations declared September 15 the International Day of Democracy. 43] [edit] Countries The following countries are categorized by the Democracy Index 2011 as Full democracy:[44] 1. Norway? 2. Iceland? 3. Denmark? 4. Sweden? 5. New Zealand   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  | 6. Australia? 7. Switzerland? 8. Canada? 9. Finland? 10. Netherlands   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã ‚  | 11. Luxembourg   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  ? 12. Ireland? 13. Austria? 14. Germany? 15. Malta| 16. Czech Republic   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  ? 17. Uruguay? 18. United Kingdom? 19. United States? 20. Costa Rica| 21. Japan? 22. South Korea? 23. Belgium? 24. Mauritius? 25.Spain| The Index assigns 53 countries to the next category, Flawed democracy: Argentina, Benin, Botswana, Brazil, Bulgaria, Cape Verde, Chile, Colombia, Croatia, Cyprus, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Estonia, France, Ghana, Greece, Guyana, Hungary, Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Jamaica, Latvia, Lesotho, Lithuania, Macedonia, Malaysia, Mali, India, Mexico, Moldova, Mongolia, Montenegro, Namibia, Panama, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Suriname, Taiwan, Thailand, Timor-Leste, Trinidad and Tobago, Zambia[44] [edit]Types See also: List of types of democracy Democracy has taken a number of forms, both in theory and practice. Some varieties of democracy provide better representation and more freedom for their citizens than others. [45][46] However, if any democracy is not structured so as to prohibit the government from excluding the people from the legislative process, or any branch of government from altering the separation of powers in its own favor, then a branch of the system can accumulate too much power and destroy the democracy. 47][48][49] World's states colored by form of government as of 20111 Presidential republics2|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Semi-presidential republics2|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Parliamentary republics2|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Single-party republics|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Parliamentary constitutional monarchies|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Absolute monarchies|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Military dictatorships|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Parliamentary constitutional monarchies in which the monarch personally exercises power|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Republics with an executive president dependent on a parliament|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Countries which do not fit any of the above systems| | This map was complied according to the Wikipedia list of countries by system of government. See there for sources. 2Several states constitutionally deemed to be multiparty republics are broadly described by outsiders as authoritarian states. This map presents only the de jure form of government, and not the de facto degree of democracy. The following kinds of democracy are not exclusive of one another: many specify details of aspects that are independent of one another and can co-exist in a single system. [edit] Basic forms [edit] DirectMain article: Direct democracy Direct democracy is a political system where the citizens participate in the decision-making personally, contrary to relying on intermediaries or representatives. The supporters of direct democracy argue that democracy is more than merely a procedural issue. A direct democracy gives the voting population the power to: Landsgemeinde of the canton of Appenzell Innerr hoden, example for direct democracy in Switzerland 1. Change constitutional laws, 2. Put forth initiatives, referendums and suggestions for laws, 3.Give binding orders to elective officials, such as revoking them before the end of their elected term, or initiating a lawsuit for breaking a campaign promise. Of the three measures mentioned, most operate in developed democracies today. This is part of a gradual shift towards direct democracies. Elements of direct democracy exist on a local level in many countries, though these systems often coexist with representative assemblies. Usually, this includes equal (and more or less direct) participation in the proposal, development and passage of legislation into law. [14] [edit]Representative Main article: Representative democracy Representative democracy involves the selection of government officials by the people being represented. If the head of state is also democratically elected then it is called a democratic republic. [50] The most c ommon mechanisms involve election of the candidate with a majority or a plurality of the votes. Representatives may be elected or become diplomatic representatives by a particular district (or constituency), or represent the entire electorate through proportional systems, with some using a combination of the two.Some representative democracies also incorporate elements of direct democracy, such as referendums. A characteristic of representative democracy is that while the representatives are elected by the people to act in the people's interest, they retain the freedom to exercise their own judgment as how best to do so. [edit] Parliamentary Main article: Parliamentary system Parliamentary democracy is a representative democracy where government is appointed by representatives as opposed to a ‘presidential rule' wherein the President is both head of state and the head of government and is elected by the voters.Under a parliamentary democracy, government is exercised by delegat ion to an executive ministry and subject to ongoing review, checks and balances by the legislative parliament elected by the people. [51][52][53][54][55] Parliamentary systems have the right to dismiss a Prime Minister at any point in time that they feel he or she is not doing their job to the expectations of the legislature. This is done through a Vote of No Confidence where the legislature decides whether or not to remove the Prime Minister from office by a majority support for his or her dismissal. 56] In some countries, the Prime Minister can also call an election whenever he or she so chooses, and typically the Prime Minister will hold an election when he or she knows that they are in good favor with the public as to get re-elected. In other parliamentary democracies extra elections are virtually never held, a minority government being preferred until the next ordinary elections. [edit] Presidential Main article: Presidential system Presidential Democracy is a system where the public elects the president through free and fair elections.The president serves as both the head of state and head of government controlling most of the executive powers. The president serves for a specific term and cannot exceed that amount of time. Elections typically have a fixed date and aren’t easily changed. The president has direct control over the cabinet, the members of which are specifically appointed by the president himself. [56] The president cannot be easily removed from office by the legislature, but he or she cannot remove members of the legislative branch any more easily.This provides some measure of separation of powers. In consequence however, the president and the legislature may end up in the control of separate parties, allowing one to block the other and thereby interfere with the orderly operation of the state. This may be the reason why presidential democracy is not very common outside the Americas. [56] A semi-presidential system is a system of demo cracy in which the government includes both a prime minister and a president. The particular powers held by the prime minister and president vary by country. 56] [edit] Constitutional Main article: Constitutional democracy A constitutional democracy is a representative democracy in which the ability of the elected representatives to exercise decision-making power is subject to the rule of law, and usually moderated by a constitution that emphasizes the protection of the rights and freedoms of individuals, and which places constraints on the leaders and on the extent to which the will of the majority can be exercised against the rights of minorities (see civil liberties).In a constitutional democracy, it is possible for some large-scale decisions to emerge from the many individual decisions that citizens are free to make. In other words, citizens can â€Å"vote with their feet† or â€Å"vote with their dollars†, resulting in significant informal government-by-the-masses that exercises many â€Å"powers† associated with formal government elsewhere. [edit] Hybrid Some modern democracies that are predominately representative in nature also heavily rely upon forms of political action that are directly democratic.These democracies, which combine elements of representative democracy and direct democracy, are termed hybrid democracies[57] or semi-direct democracies. Examples include Switzerland and some U. S. states, where frequent use is made of referendums and initiatives. Although managed by a representative legislative body, Switzerland allows for initiatives and referendums at both the local and federal levels. In the past 120 years less than 250 initiatives have been put to referendum.The populace has been conservative, approving only about 10% of the initiatives put before them; in addition, they have often opted for a version of the initiative rewritten by government. [citation needed] In the United States, no mechanisms of direct democrac y exists at the federal level, but over half of the states and many localities provide for citizen-sponsored ballot initiatives (also called â€Å"ballot measures†, â€Å"ballot questions† or â€Å"propositions†), and the vast majority of states allow for referendums.Examples include the extensive use of referendums in the US state of California, which is a state that has more than 20 million voters. [58] In New England Town meetings are often used, especially in rural areas, to manage local government. This creates a hybrid form of government, with a local direct democracy and a state government which is representative. For example, most Vermont towns hold annual town meetings in March in which town officers are elected, budgets for the town and schools are voted on, and citizens have an opportunity to speak and by heard on political matters. 59] [edit] Variants [edit] Republic Main article: Republicanism In contemporary usage, the term democracy refers to a go vernment chosen by the people, whether it is direct or representative. [60] The term republic has many different meanings, but today often refers to a representative democracy with an elected head of state, such as a president, serving for a limited term, in contrast to states with a hereditary monarch as a head of state, even if these states also are representative democracies with an elected or appointed head of government such as a prime minister. 61] The Founding Fathers of the United States rarely praised and often criticized democracy, which in their time tended to specifically mean direct democracy, often without the protection of a Constitution enshrining basic rights; James Madison argued, especially in The Federalist No. 10, that what distinguished a democracy from a republic was that the former became weaker as it got larger and suffered more violently from the effects of faction, whereas a republic could get stronger as it got larger and combats faction by its very struc ture.What was critical to American values, John Adams insisted,[62] was that the government be â€Å"bound by fixed laws, which the people have a voice in making, and a right to defend. † As Benjamin Franklin was exiting after writing the U. S. constitution, a woman asked him â€Å"Well, Doctor, what have we got—a republic or a monarchy? â€Å". He replied â€Å"A republic—if you can keep it. â€Å"[63] Queen Elizabeth II, a constitutional monarch. [edit] Constitutional monarchy Main article: constitutional monarchyInitially after the American and French revolutions, the question was open whether a democracy, in order to restrain unchecked majority rule, should have an elite upper chamber, the members perhaps appointed meritorious experts or having lifetime tenures, or should have a constitutional monarch with limited but real powers. Some countries (as Britain, the Netherlands, Belgium, Scandinavian countries, Thailand, Japan and Bhutan) turned powerful mon archs into constitutional monarchs with limited or, often gradually, merely symbolic roles.Often the monarchy was abolished along with the aristocratic system (as in France, China, Russia, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Italy, Greece and Egypt). Many nations had elite upper houses of legislatures which often had lifetime tenure, but eventually these lost power (as in Britain) or else became elective and remained powerful (as in the United States). [edit] Socialist Socialist thought has several different views on democracy. Social democracy, democratic socialism, and the dictatorship of the proletariat (usually exercised through Soviet democracy) are some examples.Many democratic socialists and social democrats believe in a form of participatory democracy and workplace democracy combined with a representative democracy. Within Marxist orthodoxy there is a hostility to what is commonly called â€Å"liberal democracy†, which they simply refer to as parliamentary democracy because of its often centralized nature. Because of their desire to eliminate the political elitism they see in capitalism, Marxists, Leninists and Trotskyists believe in direct democracy implemented through a system of communes (which are sometimes called soviets).This system ultimately manifests itself as council democracy and begins with workplace democracy. (See Democracy in Marxism) Democracy cannot consist solely of elections that are nearly always fictitious and managed by rich landowners and professional politicians. —Che Guevara,  Speech, Uruguay, 1961[64] [edit] Anarchist Anarchists are split in this domain, depending on whether they believe that a majority-rule is tyrannic or not. The only form of democracy considered acceptable to many anarchists is direct democracy.Pierre-Joseph Proudhon argued that the only acceptable form of direct democracy is one in which it is recognized that majority decisions are not binding on the minority, even when unanimous. [65] However, anar cho-communist Murray Bookchin criticized individualist anarchists for opposing democracy,[66] and says â€Å"majority rule† is consistent with anarchism. [67] Some anarcho-communists oppose the majoritarian nature of direct democracy, feeling that it can impede individual liberty and opt in favour of a non-majoritarian form of consensus democracy, similar to Proudhon's position on direct democracy. 68] Henry David Thoreau, who did not self-identify as an anarchist but argued for â€Å"a better government†[69] and is cited as an inspiration by some anarchists, argued that people should not be in the position of ruling others or being ruled when there is no consent. [edit] Demarchy Main article: Demarchy Sometimes called â€Å"democracy without elections†, demarchy uses sortition to choose decision makers via a random process. The intention is that those chosen will be representative of the opinions and interests of the people at large, and be more fair and impart ial than an elected official.The technique was in widespread use in Athenian Democracy and is still used in modern jury selection. [edit] Consensus Main article: Consensus democracy Consensus democracy requires varying degrees of consensus rather than just a mere democratic majority. It typically attempts to protect minority rights from domination by majority rule. [edit] Supranational Qualified majority voting is designed by the Treaty of Rome to be the principal method of reaching decisions in the European Council of Ministers. This system allocates votes to member states in part according to their population, but heavily weighted in favour of the smaller states.This might be seen as a form of representative democracy, but representatives to the Council might be appointed rather than directly elected. Some might consider the â€Å"individuals† being democratically represented to be states rather than people, as with many others. European Parliament members are democraticall y directly elected on the basis of universal suffrage, may be seen as an example of a supranational democratic institution. [edit] Non-governmental Aside from the public sphere, similar democratic principles and mechanisms of voting and representation have been used to govern other kinds of communities and organizations.Many non-governmental organizations decide policy and leadership by voting. Most trade unions and cooperatives are governed by democratic elections. Corporations are controlled by shareholders on the principle of one share, one vote. [edit] Theory A marble statue of Aristotle. [edit] Aristotle Aristotle contrasted rule by the many (democracy/polity), with rule by the few (oligarchy/aristocracy), and with rule by a single person (tyranny or today autocracy/monarchy). He also thought that there was a good and a bad variant of each system (he considered democracy to be the degenerate counterpart to polity). 70][71] For Aristotle the underlying principle of democracy is freedom, since only in a democracy the citizens can have a share in freedom. In essence, he argues that this is what every democracy should make its aim. There are two main aspects of freedom: being ruled and ruling in turn, since everyone is equal according to number, not merit, and to be able to live as one pleases. But one factor of liberty is to govern and be governed in turn; for the popular principle of justice is to have equality according to number, not worth, †¦.And one is for a man to live as he likes; for they say that this is the function of liberty, inasmuch as to live not as one likes is the life of a man that is a slave. —Aristotle,  Politics 1317b (Book 6, Part II) [edit] Rationale Among modern political theorists, there are three contending conceptions of the fundamental rationale for democracy: aggregative democracy, deliberative democracy, and radical democracy. [72] [edit] Aggregative The theory of aggregative democracy claims that the aim of the de mocratic processes is to solicit citizens’ preferences and aggregate them together to determine what social policies society should adopt.Therefore, proponents of this view hold that democratic participation should primarily focus on voting, where the policy with the most votes gets implemented. Different variants of aggregative democracy exist. Under minimalism, democracy is a system of government in which citizens give teams of political leaders the right to rule in periodic elections. According to this minimalist conception, citizens cannot and should not â€Å"rule† because, for example, on most issues, most of the time, they have no clear views or their views are not well-founded.Joseph Schumpeter articulated this view most famously in his book Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy. [73] Contemporary proponents of minimalism include William H. Riker, Adam Przeworski, Richard Posner. According to the theory of direct democracy, on the other hand, citizens should vot e directly, not through their representatives, on legislative proposals. Proponents of direct democracy offer varied reasons to support this view. Political activity can be valuable in itself, it socializes and educates citizens, and popular participation can check powerful elites.Most importantly, citizens do not really rule themselves unless they directly decide laws and policies. Governments will tend to produce laws and policies that are close to the views of the median voter– with half to his left and the other half to his right. This is not actually a desirable outcome as it represents the action of self-interested and somewhat unaccountable political elites competing for votes. Anthony Downs suggests that ideological political parties are necessary to act as a mediating broker between individual and governments.Downs laid out this view in his 1957 book An Economic Theory of Democracy. [74] Robert A. Dahl argues that the fundamental democratic principle is that, when it comes to binding collective decisions, each person in a political community is entitled to have his/her interests be given equal consideration (not necessarily that all people are equally satisfied by the collective decision). He uses the term polyarchy to refer to societies in which there exists a certain set of institutions and procedures which are perceived as leading to such democracy.First and foremost among these institutions is the regular occurrence of free and open elections which are used to select representatives who then manage all or most of the public policy of the society. However, these polyarchic procedures may not create a full democracy if, for example, poverty prevents political participation. [75] Some[who? ] see a problem with the wealthy having more influence and therefore argue for reforms like campaign finance reform. Some[who? ] may see it as a problem that only voters decide policy, as opposed to a majority rule of the entire population.This can be used a s an argument for making political participation mandatory, like compulsory voting or for making it more patient (non-compulsory) by simply refusing power to the government until the full majority feels inclined to speak their minds. [edit] Deliberative Deliberative democracy is based on the notion that democracy is government by deliberation. Unlike aggregative democracy, deliberative democracy holds that, for a democratic decision to be legitimate, it must be preceded by authentic deliberation, not merely the aggregration of preferences that occurs in voting.Authentic deliberation is deliberation among decision-makers that is free from distortions of unequal political power, such as power a decision-maker obtained through economic wealth or the support of interest groups. [76][77][78] If the decision-makers cannot reach consensus after authentically deliberating on a proposal, then they vote on the proposal using a form of majority rule. [edit] Radical Radical democracy is based o n the idea that there are hierarchical and oppressive power relations that exist in society.Democracy's role is to make visible and challenge those relations by allowing for difference, dissent and antagonisms in decision making processes. [edit] Ideal forms [edit] Inclusive Main article: Inclusive Democracy Inclusive democracy is a political theory and political project that aims for direct democracy in all fields of social life: political democracy in the form of face-to-face assemblies which are confederated, economic democracy in a stateless, moneyless and marketless economy, democracy in the social realm, i. . self-management in places of work and education, and ecological democracy which aims to reintegrate society and nature. The theoretical project of inclusive democracy emerged from the work of political philosopher Takis Fotopoulos in â€Å"Towards An Inclusive Democracy† and was further developed in the journal Democracy & Nature and its successor The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy. The basic unit of decision making in an inclusive democracy is the demotic assembly, i. e. he assembly of demos, the citizen body in a given geographical area which may encompass a town and the surrounding villages, or even neighbourhoods of large cities. An inclusive democracy today can only take the form of a confederal democracy that is based on a network of administrative councils whose members or delegates are elected from popular face-to-face democratic assemblies in the various demoi. Thus, their role is purely administrative and practical, not one of policy-making like that of representatives in representative democracy.The citizen body is advised by experts but it is the citizen body which functions as the ultimate decision-taker . Authority can be delegated to a segment of the citizen body to carry out specific duties, for example to serve as members of popular courts, or of regional and confederal councils. Such delegation is made, in prin ciple, by lot, on a rotation basis, and is always recallable by the citizen body. Delegates to regional and confederal bodies should have specific mandates. [edit]

Mahatma Gandhi Research Paper

Aroused by the massacre of Amritsar in 1919, Gandhi devoted his life to gaining India’s independence from Great Britain. As the dominant figure used his persuasive philosophy of non-violent confrontation, he inspired political activists with many persuasions throughout the world (Andrews 23). Not only was Mahatma Gandhi a great peacemaker, but also his work to achieve freedom and equality for all people was greatly acknowledged. Gandhi’s unconventional style of leadership gained him the love of a country and eventually enabled him to lead the independence movement in India. Mohandas Gandhi, later called Mahatma Gandhi, was born on October 2,1869 in Porbandar, which is the present day state of Gujarat, India (Andrews 17). He grew up in a very controlled family that had an alliance with the family ruling Kathiawad. He was engaged to two other women who both died, then he eventually married Kasturba at the age of 13. Gandhi sailed to England to attend University College in London to study law (Kamat’s Potpourri). In 1891, he was able to practice in the British bar. Gandhi went back to India and tried to authorize a law practice in Bombay, with very little achievement. Two years later, an Indian firm with curiosity in South Africa had an office in Durban where Gandhi was commissioned as legal advisor. This is where he lived for twenty years once he began his job doing labor on the sugar estates in South Africa (Moreorless). As soon as he arrived in Durban, he found himself being treated as if he was not human. The Africans forbade fundamental individual rights and political rights from the Indian immigrants. This conduct resulted in Gandhi’s outburst in fury towards the African’s reactions to Indian immigrants to South Africa. He then began a civil right’s campaign, which resulted in the development of his passive resistance policy, which eventually inspired thousands. The Union of South Africa government adjusted Gandhi’s demands, which included recognition of Indian marriages and abolition of the poll tax (Kamat’s Potpourri). When this man saw how terrible people were being treated because of diversity he said, â€Å"†There is nothing that wastes the body like worry, and one who has any faith in God should be ashamed to worry about anything whatsoever,† (Gold 231). By saying that, he meant that no one should worry about where hey stand in society or how they are judged because in God’s eyes everyone is perfect and everyone is equal therefore, no one who has any faith in God should be worrying about their so called â€Å"imperfections. † This great man struggled to gain the important rights for all Indians, and this is where it all began. Once Gandhi’ s mission in South Africa was complete, he returned to India and became involved in the home ruling movement. He was concerned with excessive land tax and discrimination, so he organized protests by peasants, farmers, and urban laborers to help them stand tall and fight for what they deserved (Gold 57). During World War I, Gandhi had an active part in recruiting campaigns by launching his new movement of non-violent resistance to Great Britain (Byers 202). When Parliament passed the Rowlatt Acts in 1919, Satyagraha, which means insistence on truth, spread throughout India, recruiting millions of followers. British soldiers massacred Indians at Amritsar as a demonstration against the Rowlatt Acts. In 1920 the British government failed to make peace, which resulted in Gandhi organizing a campaign of non-cooperation (Andrews 103). There was chaos in India as the public office resigned, courts were boycotted, and children were taken out of schools. Sitting Indians, who ignored police officers when told to move, even if they got beaten, blocked the streets. Gandhi was arrested, but the British soon were forced to free him. India’s economic independence was made of Gandhi’s Swaraj (self governing) movement. Because of this, India boycotted all British goods and British industrialists were left in extreme poverty across India. To save the country, Gandhi brought back cottage industries. He started to symbolize the return of simple village life by using a spinning wheel. â€Å"Gandhi became the international symbol of a free India. He lived a spiritual and ascetic life of prayer, fasting, and meditation,† (Andrews 126). He refused material possessions, and wore the lowest-class clothing and supported himself on only vegetables, fruits, and goat’s milk. Fellow Indians looked at him as a God-like force, often referring to him as Mahatma (which means great-souled). Gandhi's ahimsa (idea of nonviolence), was essentially the way of life in the Hindu religion. Since India followed Gandhi’s ahimsa with such support, Britain would soon understand that violence is useless in this country and leave. In 1921, Gandhi received complete leadership from the Indian National Congress, the group that started the movement for nationhood. But, the Indian population could not understand why the whole world wasn’t practicing and showing the ahimsa (Kamat’s Potpurri). Because of this, many armed revolts broke out against the British. Gandhi eventually admitted that his campaign was a failure, and quickly tried to end it. Gandhi was then seized and imprisoned by the British government in 1922. He was released in 1924, and distanced himself from being involved in any politics and instead focused on getting the Indian community closer (Gold 149). Unavoidably, he was brought back into the political forces. In 1930, a new campaign of civil disobedience was called to the Indian population saying they should refuse to pay taxes, especially on salt (Moreorless). The campaign was the famous march to the sea, where thousands of Indians followed Gandhi from Ahmedabad to the Arabian Sea, and made salt by evaporating sea-water. Gandhi was again arrested, but released in 1931 as he stopped the campaign. In 1932, Gandhi started new civil-disobedience campaigns against the British. Since he was arrested twice, the Mahatma fasted for long periods many times. These fasts were very useful against the British because revolts would have broken out if Gandhi had died. In September 1932, while in jail, Gandhi performed a â€Å"fast unto death† in order to help the Hindu Untouchables. (Byers 202). The British considered the Untouchables as a separate part of the Indian government and tolerated their injustice. Although Gandhi was a member of the upper caste, he strongly believed in removing this unjust caste system. In 1934 Gandhi resigned from politics, being replaced by Jawaharlal Nehru. Gandhi continued teaching ahimsa and traveled across India. He was known for his dedication and political power. Since he was viewed with such great esteem, the British had to wait for Gandhi’s approval to limit the home rule in 1935. In 1939 he returned to politics and designed his first act manipulate the ruler of the state of Rajkot to change his autocratic rule (Moreorless). The colonial government had to intervene because the fast caused commotion across the country. When World War II broke out, the Congress party and Gandhi refused to support Britain in the war unless they were given complete independence. The British refused their proposal. When Japan entered the war, Gandhi still refused to allow India to fight in the war. He was imprisoned in 1942 but was freed after two years due to his bad health (Kamat’s Potpourri). By 1944 the British agreed to allow Indian independence only if the two nationalist groups, the Muslim League and the Congress party, resolved their issues (Andrews 178). Gandhi was strongly against the dividing of India but in the end had to agree, hoping that peace would be accomplished after the demand for Muslim separation was achieved. India and Pakistan split to two separate states when India gained its independence in 1947. Gandhi begged Hindus and Muslims to live together peacefully during the riots. Mahatma fasted until the riots stopped (Moreorless). He also fasted successfully on January 13, 1948, to bring about peace, but twelve days after that fast ended he was assassinated by a Hindu on his way to an evening prayer (Byers 203). Gandhi's death was a worldwide devastation that left the population in shock. In the United Nations there was a day set aside to mourn for Gandhi and remember his acts of nonviolence for eternity. All countries sent their apologies and reassured that he would never be forgotten. The teachings of nonviolent movements were inspired in other countries, as well as the U. S. A. â€Å"under the civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr. and in South Africa under Nelson Mandela,† (Moreorless). Gandhi was the most inspirational leader in the twentieth century because of his unique tactics of protesting and making peace worldwide. The most persuasive ways of accomplishing change in social issues came from his idea of civil disobedience and nonviolence, which advised freedom movements around the globe (Moreorless). This political leader and peacemaker will always be remembered as a successful man who impacted many to be non-violent. This accomplishment is a great achievement because without this concept India may still have been fighting for independence. Gandhi said, â€Å"The† (Moreorless) and that is what Gandhi chose to do. By doing favors for other people he was able to find out who he was, he found out he was the Mahatma because he truly did have a great soul.

Criminal Justice Integration Project

Criminal Justice Integration Project University of Phoenix Javon Lewis, Prysanthum Armstrong, Brigit Williams, and Deon Hagerty AJS/502 Harry Kirk, Instructor November 12, 2012 Criminal Justice Integration Project There are many prison facilities that are ran privately today. These facilities are known to better rehabilitate those convicted upon entering society again. Team B has developed a private prison to house those individuals who are convicted of committing crimes. Team B has also implemented different programs within the facility in hopes to deter the convicted of being repeat offenders.Unlike other privatized facilities, our major focus is not to lock up as many people as possible. We will actually focus on making them better individuals so that they can reenter the world without having criminal thoughts. The remainder of this paper will include the policies for our facility. This paper also discus the budgets, projected revenue sources and expenditures, communications, and technology. In addition, it will elaborate on cultural or sub-cultural aspects of the organization as a whole. Policies and ProceduresIn order to properly run the private facility, we will have a set of policies to abide by. Without rules and regulations, any organization can and will be chaotic. There will be a zero tolerance for harassment, whether it is towards correction officers or the prisoners. Harassment can lead to law suits and will in turn cost the facility unnecessary money that could have been used for something else. Some forms of harassment can include sexual and discrimination. It is considered unlawful to harass an individual because of their gender.Sexual harassment can include unwanted sexual behaviors, sexual favors, and other verbal sexual content. Harassment does not always have to include sexual intent. It can contain remarks about a person’s gender. This is where discrimination comes into play. If any employee practices harassment in the workplace, the y will be reported and possibly terminated depending on the circumstance. We will also follow a code of ethics. The code of ethics will help the company to remain fair in any given situation that may arise. Budget Our budget will consist of grants, donations, and tax payer dollars.We will apply for state funding yearly and follow all necessary steps in order to receive that funding. According to the state, we will need a certain amount of prisoners in order to receive the amount of grants that we need. Other funding will come from donations. We will hold monthly meetings where the public can share their ideas and views for our facility. At the meetings, we will collect donations to help support our facility and the different programs that we will offer. Last but not least, funding will come from tax payer dollars. This portion of funding will assist the organization out a great deal.Tax payers may be upset about their money going towards a facility but it will help them out as well. They are helping to keep criminals off of the streets. Over the years, we will come up with other ways to generate funding for our facility. Communications Communication is a very important aspect of any venue. In this Criminal Justice Integration Project our communication with inmate to inmate, inmate to guard, guard to guard, and so on. These communication techniques are how we stay accessible to the world. We share information with the family of the prisoners, by using the telephone.If their loved one is in our facility and they have a major issues such as they are gravely ill or in need of a major surgery, we contact them by telephone. The prisoners are entered into a database once they enter into our facility. The database will be on a website on the internet and will be searchable by name, date of birth, or prison number. This database will be available for anyone who has access to the internet as well as to the government site we participate in. They must have the informatio n of the prisoner correct in order to see the prisoner information.When visitors enter the facility they must be on the visitors list. Anyone who comes to the facility without prior authorization will not be acknowledged. Visitors will be allowed to visit the prisoner for a limited time. Conversations between visitors and prisoners will be monitored at all times and maybe used later if needed in a case. In our facility, help groups will be established with the prisoners. Our duty is to try to rehabilitate the prisoners in the system if they want to be rehabilitated. We will have a group of prisoners in a guarded room in the facility, with counselors who can speak to them in a group.The prisoners at some point may be able to help one another understand what their issues have been in the past that helped to lead them to the situation that caused them to be sentenced to this facility. Our goal as a helping group for the inmate is to get them to understand if they are ever eligible for parole what they can do in life to avoid the situation that put them in prison in the first place or ways to think quickly to a less dangerous situation where they will be able to make a better choice in life. Our facility offers one-on-one counseling.This counseling will take place between a prisoner and a criminal social service counselor in a guarded room. The counselor will be able to have multiple sessions with prisoners to find the root of their problem and hopefully be able to work on ways to resolve some of their underline issues. They will be able to find the reasons that lead to them ending up with a prison sentence and find out the base problems of why the prisoners begin to act the way they do and what can we do to change the way they think. What issued cause them to change from an innocent child to a vicious adult are more issues that they will address.Our facility will have prisoner interviews to see what are the thoughts and feelings of the prisoners is after their he lping program to analyze if they are being helped by the programs, if their ideas of life have changed, if they developed any goals and are there any chances or rehabilitation as we hoped. We will assess the prisoners weekly until we have made of final determination of rather they are leading in the right direction truthfully or are they faking their rehab just to try to get an early release. The Components of Prison SecurityAs all prison becomes more and more over crowded and the internal problems continue to rise, it is very important for the facility to be able to maintain control and stability both inside and outside the prison. Although there are several different means of security measures that are put in place, it is hard to say whether or not the security can be achieved because of the layout of the prison or is it due to the trained professional who makes the difference whether or not the facility is secure well enough or not. Both of these factors play a vital role in keep ing the prison facility as safe as it is going to be for both inside and out.Technology and Physical Security The physical layout of a prison is actually very important. The role is twofold: this is made in order to keep society out and the inmates in. This being said, this is why prisons are built with high walls, tall fences, and you cannot forget the different forms of security that are also being used according to the Department of Corrections Services. It is believed that the lay out, design and age and level of maintenance of a prison has a direct on impact on the safety and level of security. Department of Correctional Services, 2003). The department describes physical security as â€Å"the prison building itself, the layout thereof, the design as well as the fixed security systems that are attached to the building as close circuit television, security fences, alarm and detection systems, etc. â€Å"(DCS, 2003). With this being understood, you can understand why the prison designs play a major role in the prison system. Pretty much every day more and more innovations are being introduced as ways to be able to improve security form now and into the future.In 1999, the Federal Bureau of prisons had about 120,000 inmates under their watch, having this many inmates it is great to have technology to depend on in order to keep the prison safe as much as possible. With technology on the side of The Department of Corrections they were able to develop a new system that helps prisons to keep track of all vehicles that come in and leave their facility, this system is called AVIAN- Advance Vehicle Interrogation and Notification System, This system detects the presence of persons hidden in vehicles and notifies security guards of potential escape.Using the data from seismic sensors that are placed or the vehicle, the AVIAN reads the shock waves generated by the human heart, which then couples to another surface or object with which the body is in contact. It colle cts the data and analyzes them with advanced signals processing algorithms to detect hidden persons in less than two minutes. (Federal Bureau of Prisons, 1999)Another form of security is the classification and reclassification, combine with the proper placement of the prisoners, things like this are considered to be very important factors of security.Prisoners are divided up by their different risks they pose to their fellow prisoners, and the community. The prisoners are sorted by different levels or categories and this is decided by how much of a threat the offender is to society (Category â€Å"A† prisoner and very dangerous to society, the police, and the state. ) If someone in this category were to escape they would be considered to be very dangerous to the outside community. Prisoners that fall into the category B do not have to be in such of a high risk security facility, but escape is still made to be very difficult to do.Prisoners who are in the â€Å"C† still cannot be trusted in open conditions, but they do not have the ability or resources to make a determined escape attempt. The prisoners in the â€Å"D† categories are considered to be trust worthy and they are allowed to serve their time without being totally confined, they serve their sentences in an open environment (Price, 1999). An allocation refers to the placement of a prisoner in a certain situations, which can include certain institutions, which includes the local jails, a state penitentiary, or even a federal prison. Cultural AspectsThe culture of prison facilities is very important in terms of positive leadership. Culture sets â€Å"the values, assumptions and beliefs that drive the way people think and behave at work† (Flaherty-Zonis, 2009). It sets the tone of the prison facility and how it operates. In recent discoveries, there has been a proven need for a more unified prison system across the country. They have been shown to â€Å"often operate as if the y are comprised of independent parts—the silos we hear about and experience. The staff of each part knows very well their perceived level of importance and the power of their voice.All too often, voices that are not as highly valued, coming from staff who are nonetheless critical to the running of the facility, are not heard, or are stifled and disregarded† (Flaherty-Zonis, 2009). This process must change. The staff is one of the most important factors to the successful operation of a correctional facility. They know firsthand what it is like to deal with prisoners and the voice of the staff is what keeps the prison’s culture intact. It is very common for prison sub-cultures to exist and create differentiators.This derives from the camaraderie that is being sought. Some discoveries have shown â€Å"the cultures in corrections facilities to be dominated by the following characteristics: conventional, â€Å"don’t rock the boat† thinking; a pattern of dependence, with a value on following rather than leading; avoidance of conflict, leaving many disagreements unresolved and even unidentified; a high level of oppositional behavior, focusing on what is wrong and holding on to past wrongs rather than working to find solutions; and a limited willingness to share power and information† (Flaherty-Zonis, 2009).The goal of our facility is to create a culture of positive leadership for staff as well as prisoners to follow. In the implementation of our â€Å"Positive Leaders Program†, we strive to create conceptualizations to accomplish tasks and create common understandings amongst staff and prisoners. Due to the fact that employees have direct dealings in the facilities with prisoners, we want to give them added responsibility to ensure that they are completely involved in this program. This will allow them to have a distinctive voice and always be interactive.Having strong leadership and employee interaction calls for a gre at deal of readiness and willingness to be direct and straightforward. The involvement of the staff is very important because individual participation forms and strengthens cultural group dynamics. This is where the staff works together to create a common process or understanding. In order to implement a successful and positive culture, we need a strategic planning process which is composed of shared ideology and focuses on strategic thinking, planning, management and response.We believe that following a strategic plan and sharing the ideas of everyone will allow for a great respect towards our culture, organizational diversity and pride. We want to encourage employees to remain involved in the development of a positive culture so that inmates feel like more than just a number. We want to be able to effectively implement programs and community sanctions to help improve the personal lives of prisoners so that they find inspiration to maintain a positive attitude and outlook while ser ving their prison term. DiscussionThe private facility that Team B will start for housing convicted prisoners will indeed be a success. The many programs that we will offer and implement such as the one on one counseling and prisoner interviews will be life changing for them, and assist them with making the right decisions upon entering society again. The security measures that we have in place will secure all inmates as well as correctional officers. The cultural aspects leadership program will aide prisoners to be more positive individuals so that they will have a better chance at not being a repeat offender.Overall, this facility will attempt to focus more on rehabilitation rather than punishment. Everyone deserves a second chance at life, and that’s what we plan on giving our housed inmates. References American Jail Association (1993). American Jail Association Code of Ethics. Retrieved January 28, 2003, from http://www. corrections. com/aja/resolutions/index. html Associ ated Press (2001). Prison escape probe to focus on lax security. Retrieved January 28, 2003, from http://www. clickonsa. om/ant/news/stories/news-20010108-085202. html Department of Correctional Services (2003). Safety and security. Retrieved February19, 2003, from http://www. dcs. gov. za/OffenderManagement/Safetyandsecurity. htm Federal Bureau of Prisons (1999). Introducing AVIAN. Retrieved February 5, 2003, from http://www. heartbeat-detector-avian. com Flaherty-Zonis, C. (2009). Corrections Systems: Creating Positive Culture and Dynamic Leadership. Retrieved October 22, 2012 from http://www. corrections. om/news/article/22540-corrections-systems-creating-positive-culture-and-dynamic-leadership Goldberg, E. & Evans, L. (1995). The prison industrial complex and the global economy. Retrieved April 22, 2003, from http://www. prisonactivist. org/crisis/evans-goldberg. html Johnson, A. (2000, July 28). Security at prison in doubt, union says. The Columbus Dispatch. Retrieved February 19, 2003, from http://www. dispatch. com/news/newsfea00/jul00/364974. html Liberty (2002, August). Allocation. Retrieved April 22, 2003 from http://www. ourrights. org. uk Price, D. (1999). Questions and answers about security categorization. Retrieved February 5, 2003, from http://www. postcardsfromprison. com/research/catsecfq. htm Schlosser, E. (1998). The prison-industrial complex. Retrieved April 4, 2003, from http://theatlantic. com/issues/98dec/prisons. htm Vertuno. J. (1999). Prison official says guards receive more than recommended training. Texas News. Retrieved April 22, 2003 from http://www. texnews. com/1998/1999/texas/prison0130. html

Financial Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Financial Analysis - Essay Example ning process varies depending on the unique features of the business and its goals, but basically there are various general steps and guidelines that form the basis of the planning process. These steps include; Determination of Current Financial Situations, Establishment of Financial Objectives, Identification of Alternative Courses of Action, Evaluation of those alternatives, development and Implementation of Financial Action plan and even the process of Plan re-evaluation and revision. Dividends are termed as the ultimate distribution of either present or past earnings in factual assets amongst the existing shareholders within a given firm based on their ownership proportions (FABOZZI, F2011). Dividend policy often connotes to pay-out policy that is usually pursued by various managers while making decisions on the pattern and size of the shareholder’s cash distribution over time. The managements’ primary objective is based on the shareholders’ maximization of wealth, which often directly translates into value maximization of a given firm as determined by the company’s stock price. The achievement of this goal can be done through the aspect of granting shareholders with a fairer payment with regards to their investments. However, based on this Company under study, the effect of its shareholder’s dividend policy is still un-settled in one way or the other (FRAME & CURRY, 1974). There are generally two major types of dividend policies that include the residual and managed policies. In residual policy the quantity of dividend simply refers to the cash that is left behind after the given Company utilizes NPV rule in making desirable investments. This hence means that there will be a higher dividend variability with regards to the amount and can even reach a zero point. On the other hand, the optimal policy refers to a policy that largely work towards maximizing the firm’s stock price, thereby leading to the ultimate maximization based on the level of

Letter Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Letter - Essay Example I completely agree with your observation that the California public education in the 20th century was at its ‘peaks of excellence’ and that the public elementary, secondary and higher education institutes in the state showed immense commitment and dedication in offering quality education to many. However, I am also shocked to see the decline of the standard of education in the state towards the end of the 20th century. I also feel that the decline in the educational system is evident in terms of the ‘overcrowded classrooms, insufficient books and supplies, inadequate compensation and lay-offs’. It was quite shocking to me when you rightly pointed out that it is not due to any financial problems or recession (because California still owns one sixth of U.S GDP) that the public education sector has suffered so much setbacks. I strongly agree with your argument that even though the state has all the resources and talents to afford quality education, it is becaus e of the political system, anti-tax political culture, wrong configuration of higher education system, and undue budget priorities that it lags behind in the realms of higher education.

Managing strategic change is fundamental to business success Discuss Essay

Managing strategic change is fundamental to business success Discuss - Essay Example Lewin attempted to explain organizational change by using the example of the physical changes an ice cube undergoes over time. He noted that if you have an ice cube that you want to change to a cone of ice, you melt the ice cube (unfreeze) then you model (change) the water into the cone shape you want by freezing the water (refreeze). By analyzing the change as a process, with specific stages, a manager can begin to monitor and manage the transition. Understanding the reason why the change has to take place is very important in any successful process of change. During the unfreezing stage, some factors have to be accomplished. The organization is prepared in order to accept the changes required. It entails breaking down the existing procedures and management strategies to facilitate the adoption of changes. An important aspect of this process is identifying and developing a good reason why the organization cannot continue in its current way of doing things. Pointers such as poor financial results, declining sales figures, negative feedback from customer satisfaction surveys can be useful in developing the message necessitating the need for change that other people can see, preparing the organization for the impending changes is necessary and the process begins at the center of the organization. Beliefs, attitudes, values, and behaviors that are currently held must be challenged to pave way for the implementation of the needed changes. This is the most problematic stage because by disrupting the way things are usually done, you destabilize people in the organization who depend on routine to perform their daily duties, which may evoke very strong reactions from the people affected. There is uncertainty created. Through challenging the organization to change, a controlled crisis is created that can be a tool for motivation in order to establish a new equilibrium where people are comfortable with the new changes. At

Response Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 5

Response - Assignment Example According to Savan, most of the Black English spoken today came about during the period of slavery where most African Americans were slaves to the whites. They used these words when peaking to themselves before their â€Å"Massa† so that he did not understand what they were talking about. These words were simply used by the blacks to communicate without angering their masters. The use of these words today is associated with marketing and commercials where whites are using them for their own benefit, with total disregard to the origin of these words. According to Sava, consumer media is exploiting black language for fame and profits. Therefore, paying the dues means appreciating the origin of these words, and the struggle the African Americans underwent in making these terms. In the text by Manuel Muà ±oz, the term ‘Anglicize’ is used to mean changing something from a certain language and making it sound or look ‘English.’ It refers to taking something from a different language and creating an English equivalent. This usually applies to names. In this text for instance, Muà ±oz says that the Anglicized pronunciation of the Mexican gate agent would not be unusual in California. This means that since California is in America where English is the first language, Anglicized pronunciations are usual because they sound English. In his essay, Muà ±oz uses the term Anglicize to refer to the changing of Spanish names into their English equivalents in order to fit into the American society. Therefore, Anglicization is a strategy many people use in order to feel included in the society. It is simply changing of names for purposes of fitting into the society so as to enjoy the privileges and opportunities offered by that society. From my personal experience, I have interacted with a number of friends from other countries who

Corporate finace Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Corporate finace - Essay Example Online Travel Portal Limited used to be the former name of Opodo Limited prior to July 2001. It is a subsidiary of Amadeus IT Holding, South Africa. However, it is based in London, UK and was incorporated in the year 2000. The Financial Times reported that Permira Advisers Ltd. and AXA Private Equity seem to join hands together for the purpose of buying Opodo Limited from Amadeus IT Holding SA at the cost of â‚ ¬500 million that is equal to USD 682.5 million. The prime objective of the planned buyout is to develop the best online booking services provider through merging the Opodo Limited with the eFreame and Go Voyages SA. Also, the American Carlyle Group has shown some intend to buy Opodo limited due to which the bids for Opodo exceeded â‚ ¬400 million since any bid would probably be challenged by Carlyle Group. Some sources reported that the Permira would bid through Vacaciones eDreams, S.L. where as the Axa would be bidding through Go Voyages SA. The process of this sale wi ll be handled by the JPMorgan Chase. Permira and Axa have been bidding against each other for the acquisition of medium sized European web based travel agencies prior to joining together so as to acquire Opodo Limited. In the last year, Permira defeated Axa so as to acquire eDreams-Spanish online agency where as the Axa won against Permira for the acquisition of Go Voyages. After which they together planned to develop a giant European agency through merging the Opodo Limited, after its acquisition if their bid for it is successful, with the previously acquired eDreams and Go Voyages. At present, the Amadeus IT Holding owns the Opodo Limited and this business venture involves only 4 % of their entire business turnover. Financial Performance Indicators Financial performance indicators for the three companies are provided below. Chart 1: Annual Sales Permira Advisers Ltd for the Last 5 Years in Million USD. The chart 1 given above provides interesting information about the annual sales of the Permira Advisers Ltd that enables us to apprehend the performance of the company before the acquisition of OPODO Limited. Chart 2: Annual Sales AXA Private Equity for the Last 5 Years in Million USD. The chart 2 given above provides interesting information about the annual sales of the AXA Private Equity that enables us to apprehend the performance of the company before the acquisition of OPODO Limited. Chart 3: Annual Sales OPODO Limited for the Last 5 Years in Million USD. The chart provides interesting information about the annual sales of the OPODO Limited that enables us to apprehend the performance of the company before its acquisition. Due to the above performance of Opodo, other companies are interested towards its acquisition. Why Are Mergers & Acquisitions Interesting? The most important factor for the mergers and acquisitions is the existence of "synergies" that enables the two companies to operate more efficiently together in comparison to be working individually . Nevertheless in some cases, organization may obtain tax benefits from a merger or acquisition. 'Horizontal' mergers that take place between companies functioning in the same industry at the same production level may also be instigated through the wish for greater market power, as in the current case of OPODO acquisition by the Permira and AXA (being merged together). Also,

The Fall of Reza Pahlavi and the Rise of Ayatollah Khomeini Essay

The Fall of Reza Pahlavi and the Rise of Ayatollah Khomeini - Essay Example Iran has been manipulated by the forces of the west but the people there despise the west and have an ideology which supports the radical Islam. Khomeini won the hearts of people by being a man who said what they wanted to hear. He did not like the west and wanted strict Islamic rules to be applied. His people believed in him and he led them through the Islamic revolution and left the torch in their hand later to carry it forward. Â  The Islamic Republic of Iran was known as Persia before 1935.1 Iran has seen political turbulence in its history. It has seen many empires and dynasties and many rulers have ruled it. Even in the 1900's Iran has seen many revolutions. It has seen the constitutional revolution in 1906, the Pahlavi Dynasty in 1925 and the Iranian Islamic Revolution in 1978. Iran was declared the Islamic Republic on 1st April 1989.2 Today Iran is growing in all aspects and has proved itself as a very strong and determined country. Â  Reza Shah laid the foundation of modern Iran by overthrowing the Qajar Dynasty. Ahmed Shah the last Qajar King left Iran for Europe and as his absence was for an indefinite period of time the parliament overthrew him and made Ahmed Shah the Shahanshah of Iran. At this time Iran was a very poor country. Reza Shah had western views and he tried his best to develop Iran according to these views. He built roads, organized all systems of his country and built a very good trans-Iranian Railway.3 He made great changes to the country but he was seen as the people as a Westernized man. In World War II, Iran was a neutral state, But Russia wanted to use its mature railways to help it in war. Reza Shah failed to go forward with this plan, the Russian and British army attacked Iran and Reza Shah left the throne in favor of his son Muhammad Reza Shah and spent rest of his life in exile in South Africa. As Muhammad Reza Shah succeeded the throne, he faced many problems with pro-Soviet and pro- British parties. In 1946 after the war over the Soviets overstayed in Iran and this created more confusion. Iran had a lot of oil and it was not giving concessions to the Soviet but was giving it to the British.4 The National Front Party wanted a neutral stance on this issue and wanted to take away concession from the British. In 1953 clash between the Shah and Prime Minister Mossadeq became very evident. The pro-Soviet party was very strong and forced the Shah to leave the country.

Managing Shareholder Value Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Managing Shareholder Value - Essay Example For effectively planning and managing the funds, another scorecard of metrics is being developed with the provision of incentives for bettering the budgeted figures being used. All of these elements when considered individually excel with their simplicity. But when the system as a whole is looked at it turns to be complex with a number of "metrics, methods and messages" which makes the understanding of the finance executives of the shareholder value rather difficult. Hence it becomes vitally important that the CFO of any organization coordinates his efforts in designing the systems of the financial management with the CEO and the directors of the company so that the internal corporate governance is strengthened and if necessary modified to meet the firm's requirements. With this background this paper envisages presenting a report on the degree of profit measure of economic surplus and shareholders funds economic value accurate the metrics of the key economic visions of a firm. The shareholder value is represented by the wealth a company creates through its profitability for its shareholders. The shareholder value also includes the broad framework in which the firm operates to achieve the shareholder value and it also includes the organizational culture. ... areholder Value theory works on the premise that the value created by a business is best represented by the change in its economic value that is, the change in the net present value of its expected future cash flows to shareholders."1 There are a number of Shareholder Value measures which are being used for monitoring and evaluating the performance of the organization as well as rewarding the employees. One of the most popular methods of shareholder Value Measure is the Economic Value Added (EVA) approach. 2.1 Rationale behind adopting Shareholder Value Approach: The Shareholder Value approach has increasingly been adopted due to the following factors: The managers always feel that there exist a difference in the value of the firm as perceived internally and by the shareholders and this approach helps them to bridge the gap It is also necessary that the investors should know the true economic value of the firm for making their investment decisions on the basis of the economic profit of the firms. The accounting statements present rather a historic value and analysis of the performance of a company and it is necessary to have information on the future value of the company. Since the shareholder value is based on projected cash flows allowing for the cost of capital which are also discounted are less influenced by accounting rules and hence project the true value of the firm. Due to the globalization there is a delay in accessing the standard measures of performance Due to increased contribution to business by the information technology the expectations of investors has increased to get more clear measures of performance. The above factors necessitate adopting a proper measure for the assessing the value of a firm from a shareholder's perspective and Economic Value

Fieldtrip - King Arthur's Cave and Wye Valley Catchment Assignment

Fieldtrip - King Arthur's Cave and Wye Valley Catchment (Herefordshire) - Assignment Example It is important to highlight that the cave is located at the bottom of the low lying cliff that is at the mouth of the Lord Woods in the north eastern end in Doward, this is next to the Symonds Yat with a distance approximated to be 4 miles. It is known that the cave is said to have been inhabited by the early man in the upper Paleolithic era. The evidences that vindicate this are the archaeological exhibit that is the flint tools and the bones of the wooly mammoth. (Arthur, 2007). It is important to highlight that King Arthur’s cave is made of two chambers that intersect at the point of entrance. This is estimated to lie 300 feet above river Wye. It is important o note that one of the chambers is 25 feet in diameter and is circular in shape. The entrance also has a hearth that the archaeologists say was in existence for the past 12000 years. The Mesolithic artifacts have also been found in the cave. The chambers were called Bear’s den and Lion’s cave. This was because of the archaeological evidences that were confiscated in there. (John 2000). It is important to note that among the items that were found in the cave, the following were the ones that gave the evidence of the Mesolithic inhabitance as well the upper Paleolithic inhabitance. The bones were; wooly rhinoceros, cave bear and the hyena. The foreman of the elephant too was found in the cave. The people therefore spend much in the various areas that they spend their time in the name of visiting the place and this therefore earns foreign exchange to the country in question. The money that is earned from this is therefore use in the developments of the various infrastructural facilities that help in the boosting of the various economic sectors (John 2001). It is as well important to note the point that the Herefordshire is at the point of interconnection and at a point that it joins the Wye River. The place therefore has an added advantage of the valley is the nearby forest also acts

Nature of Public Administration Essay Example for Free

Nature of Public Administration Essay Before we discuss about the meaning, definition, nature, scope and importance of public administration we will try to know what is administration, organisation and management. As these terms are often used interchangeably and synonymously, it is pertinent to know the differences and distinctions between these three terms. According to William Schulze Administration is the force, which lays down the object for which an organisation and its management are to strive and the broad policies under which they are to operate. An Organisation is a combination of the necessary human beings, materials, tools, equipment and working space, appurtenances brought together in systematic and effective co-relation to accomplish some desired object. Management is that which leads guides and directs an organisation for the accomplishment of pre-determined object. To put the above in simple terms, administration sets the goal, management strives to attain it and organisation is the machine of the management for the attainment of the ends determined by the administration. Some scholars have a different view about the administration and management. According to Peter Drucker management is associated with the business activity, which has to show economic performance, whereas administration is associated with the non business activities like activities of the Government. The other view is that administration is associated with performing routine things in known settings in accordance with certain procedures, rules, and regulations. The Management is associated with performing functions like risk taking, dynamic, creative and innovative functions. Some scholars of Public Administration are closely associated with the first view that is, administration is a determinative function. Management, on other hand is an executive function that is primarily concerned with carrying out the broad policies laid down by the administration.

Financial History of the American Airlines

Financial History of the American Airlines American Airways was incorporated in 1930, becoming American Airlines in 1934. Operating as a passenger and cargo carrier, they also offer freight and mail services. With 9 hubs functioning throughout the country, they average around $522 million a month. In 1939, they began trading stock on the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) under the symbol AAL. (Yahoo Finance, November 2013) American Airlines began trading stock publicly on December 9, 2013. In 1970, American Airlines gained its first Caribbean routes, merging with Trans Caribbean Airways. The agreements of the merger were that American Airlines would aid Trans Caribbean in obtaining a total of $10 million in financing. Also, for 100 shares of Trans Caribbean, American Airlines exchanged 17Â  shares. This merger would make for airlines first merger under its current name. (NY Times Archives, 1970.) January 10, 2001, it became public that American Airlines had acquired bankrupt Trans World Airlines (TWA) for $4.2 billion. This transaction made American Airlines the worlds largest airline carrier. American acquired all of TWAs assets, as well as saved the jobs of thousands of TWAs employees by integrating them into their family. (Biz Journals, 2001) In 2003, talks of possible bankruptcy arose for American. Labor unions eventually approved economizing contracts to avoid the bankruptcy, in which employees agreed to accept intense pay cuts in attempts to save the airline. Joy came in 2007, when American reported an annual profit of $231 million for fiscal 2006, its first reporting since around 2000. But, the glory didnt last long, as shareholders announced at their annual meeting that due to soaring jet fuel costs, they would have to lay off thousands of workers, park at least 85 aircraft, cut domestic capacity by 25%, and increase baggage fees and other service offered to customers. An official bankruptcy protection was filed November 29, 2011, after the airline reported a net loss of $471 billion, bringing their total losses to exceed $10 billion since 2001. American had acquired $29.6 billion in debt. Required to run all their future financial decisions across a judges desk, they were permitted to purchase fuel, pay for labor, and other expenditures, to maintain business. In July 2011, they received approval to place the largest plane order in history, buying 460 aircraft from Boeing and Airbus, replacing older planes. The newer models would cut down on fuel and maintenance costs. (Yahoo Finance, 2011) The year of 2012 introduced talks of a merger with US Airways. Agreements were made to exchange financial information so that the companies can research the potential merger. The merger eventually passed February 2013, officially announced on the 14th day of the month, thus the creation of the worlds biggest airline. (Yahoo Finance, 2013) As of December 31, 2015, American Airlines gross profit was approximately $29 billion, with a net operating income of $6.2 billion and a net income of $7.6 billion, all driven by lower fuel costs, American could benefit from the decline on fuel prices. (2015 Form 10-K, AA.com) References American Airlines Investor Information, 2015 Form 10-K. http://phx.corporate-ir.net/phoenix.zhtml?c=117098p=irol-reportsannual History of American Airlines. https://www.aa.com/i18n/customer-service/about-us/history-of-american-airlines.jsp A timeline of events in American Airlines history, November 12, 2013. The Associated Press. http://finance.yahoo.com/news/timeline-events-american-airlines-history-011902886.html American Airlines acquires TWA. December 23, 2001. Biz Journals. http://www.bizjournals.com/stlouis/stories/2001/12/24/focus3.html Koenig, David. November 29, 2011. American Airlines files for bankruptcy protection. https://www.yahoo.com/news/american-airlines-files-bankruptcy-protection-121438848.html